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    Palladium nanoparticles supported on biochar/graphitic carbon nitride as a heterogeneous catalyst for pharmaceutical degradation
    (Elsevier Ltd, 2024) Yekan Motlagh, Parisa; Vahid, Behrouz; Karimpour, Deniz; Babazadeh, Negar; Kayan, Berkant; Baran, Talat
    Sonocatalysis is a promising method for degrading organic pollutants in aqueous media. However, practical applications require the development of low-cost, green, and efficient sonocatalysts. This study investigated the removal of pharmaceutical compounds, such as tetracycline (TC), from water and wastewater via ultrasound (US)-based decomposition by Pd nanoparticles protected on biochar/graphitic carbon nitride (Pd@BC/g-C3N4). The constituents and characteristics of the catalysts were evaluated, and BC/g-C3N4 and Pd@BC/g-C3N4 were found to have bandgaps of 2.61, and 2.21 eV, respectively. Furthermore, the Pd@BC/g-C3N4 nanocomposite was confirmed to consist of Pd nanoparticles uniformly distributed on BC/g-C3N4. Pd@BC/g-C3N4 attained a degradation performance of 94.23 % after 120 min under the optimum conditions ([TC]0 = 10 mg/L, [Pd@BC/g-C3N4] = 0.03 g/L, and pH 6), whereas the degradation efficiency was only 78.33 % with BC/g-C3N4. The sonocatalytic activity did not decrease significantly during reusability experiments, demonstrating the high stability of the Pd@BC/g-C3N4 structure. The hydroxyl radicals (•OH) production during the sonocatalytic degradation of TC via the US/Pd@BC/g-C3N4 process was confirmed using photoluminescence measurements and scavenging experiments with o-phenylenediamine. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the TC degradation intermediates revealed short-chain compounds, suggesting considerable progress toward mineralization during the sonocatalytic process. Thus, Pd@BC/g-C3N4 has the potential as an efficient heterogenous sonocatalyst for wastewater remediation.